Biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Biology - Essay Example Before choosing whether to save seeds the farmer is expected to determine whether the seed is crossable with other seeds, in order to come up with new plants, that have an increased productivity, and their products are more refined. E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) in his presentation notes that the little organisms compose the foundation of the earth’s ecosystem. But, in addition, he states that the various organisms in the ecosystem relate closely to each other to come up with a stable and balanced ecosystem. Notably, the ecosystem would not exist if only one type of organisms existed. According to E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) , most of the organisms have not been discovered, though presently the scientists are making numerous attempts to find them. He reiterates that smaller organisms are the most important creatures, since they drive the ecosystem. The nematode worms are an example of these organisms. Their increased numbers enable them to effectively influence significant aspects of the en vironment. According to the research, E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) acknowledges that there are more than 5 million species in one ton of soil. He states categorically that scientists are not sure of the role that various organisms play, though they are convinced that they influence the form of the environment in a positive way. There are various organisms found such as algae and disease causing organisms. Some of the disease causing organisms include the bacteria, while some of them are harmful, the others are important to man. According to E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) there are more than 500 organisms that are found in the man’s bucal cavity. He also states that if a closer analysis is made, then someone might notice some microorganisms have their origin far from the earth, basically these organisms are aliens. E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) states that most organisms are very susceptible to various harsh conditions in the biosphere. Though human beings have made attempts to eliminate the organism s due to their harmful nature, they have not been successful. The various harmful practices that man engages in, and that threaten the survival of the organisms include: the habitat destruction such as the climate change, invasive species such as pathogenic bacteria, pollution, human population expansion, and overharvesting which leads to the extinction of certain organisms. E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) mentions that if such practices are not stopped, a half of the organisms will be eliminated within the next century. Some of the limitations that can be felt if some of the organisms are eliminated include the loss of important scientific research materials, a lack of environmental stability, and also the disappearance of some pharmaceutical products, thus, affecting wealth, security and the health in general. E. O. Wilson (n.pag.) acknowledges that the earth is on the edge of losing important scientific information and may lose various organisms even before discovering them. According to t he USA research statistics only 15% of the total organisms on the earth have been discovered. Hence, he proposes that human beings ought to preserve the environment and, at the same time, access the encyclopedia of life, which basically contains various organisms found on earth. It advocates that human beings should search for a new life, understand it, and help to preserve it. Vandana Shiva is an anti-GMO activist who advocates

Strain Theory by Robert Merton | An Analysis

Strain Theory by Robert Merton | An Analysis In criminology, the strain theory describes social structures inside society that may support people to carry out crime. Following the work of Emile Durkheim, Strain Theories have been supported by Robert King Merton, Albert K. Cohen, Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, Robert Agnew, and Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld. Strain may be either: Structural: this applies to the procedures at the community level which break down and impact how one judges their requirements, i.e. if specific social controls are insufficient or there is little regulation, this may alter the individuals outlook as to methods and prospects; or Individual: This term represents the hostility and barriers faced by persons as they look for ways to fulfill their needs or desires, i.e. if the norms of a society become important to a person, in fact accomplishing them may become more significant than the methods. The History of Strain Theory Strain theory was created from the work of Durkheim and Merton and derived from the theory of anomie. Durkheim concentrated on the reduction of societal control and the strain that was caused at the individual level, and Merton analyzed the cultural connection that is present between the individual and the standards of society. Anomie can be split into two separate levels. The first of these levels is the macro side of anomie, which is apparent in the capacity of society to establish restrictions on societal norms and goals, and ultimately control an individuals conduct. The micro side of anomie, also called as strain theory, is focused on the motives underlying the bigger probability of deviance that accumulates from the breakdown of society. In accordance with this micro side of anomie, the reduction in societal controls generates more desire to perform deviant actions (Agnew Passas, 1997:2-3). Agnew and Passas (1997) dealt with the similarities between the macro level of anomie and control theory; however, they claimed that the micro level theory of strain should be judged in a distinct way different from the control theory. Agnew (1992:48) also contrasted and compared strain theory to control theory and social learning theory. The theories vary in the kind of social relationships that they emphasize and the motivations on which they are established. The control theory hinges on the notion that the breakdown of society frees the individual to carry out crime; strain theory is motivated on the strain that is put on the person to carry out crime (Agnew, 1992). Social learning theory is founded on the fundamentals from a group that bring about a constructive or positive view of crime (Agnew, 1992). In accordance with strain theory, individual deviance is created due to negative treatment from others, and this causes anger and disappointment (Agnew, 1997a). Control theory, tho ugh, is founded on the lack of significant relationships with non-deviant others, i.e. family, church, and social learning theory is based on positive interactions with other that are considered deviant. (Agnew, 1992). The attractiveness of strain/anomie theory began in the late 1960s owing to the need of data presented by analysts and the political and social environment of the decade (Agnew Passas, 1997). The lack of supporting evidence can be due to many deficiencies in the original methods used by the analysts (Agnew Passas, 1997). Generalization of the theory and an ignorance of the earlier revisions caused a body of work that distorted the original definition of anomie/strain theory (Agnew Passas, 1997). Together with these deficiencies, modern theorists have claimed that empirical evidence in fact supports the theory (Agnew, Cullen, Burton, Evans, Gregory 1996). Mertons Strain Theory: Economic Goals, Educational Means Delinquency In the history of modern criminology, few theories have realized the impact of Mertons (1983) theory of strain and deviance. It has withstood a half-century despite a sizeable amount of literature opposed to its theoretical basis. Disillusionment with its empirical verification, on the other hand, has caused many to discard it as a possible explanation for delinquency (Hirschi, 1969; Johnson, 1979; Kornhauser, 1978). In view of the fact that the strain theory incorporates both mental and structural account for crime, its dismissal would be a critical loss to criminology. Together with reservations about the significance of social class in the birth of crime, the denial of Mertons theory of structurally induced strain could create a typical shift toward theories of individual behavior lacking structural context. The historical significance and unique contribution of strain theory deserves a re-examination before its final rejection. Mertons original explanation of strain was criticized for its theoretical uncertainty (Cohen, 1955; Lindesmith Gagnon, 1964). For instance, Merton gave examples of deviance perhaps linked with different methods of adjustment although he did not offer any statements regarding the methods by which each adaptive method might impact various crime results (Clinard, 1964a). The consequences of this type of vagueness are apparent in trials for the research of strain impacts on juvenile delinquency. The theory appears to mean that innovation causes utilitarian kinds of delinquency although does not state whether strain clarifies common kinds of juvenile crime for example sabotage or personal crimes of a non-utilitarian character (Gibbons Jones, 1975; Thio, 1975). The theory is implied as to whether strain should foresee crime prevalence or frequency or both, or critical against non-critical types. Akers operationalization of Agnews theory: Sources of strain Akers (2000) has operationalized Agnews version of the Strain Theory, as follows: Failure to achieve positively valued goals: the gap between expectations and actual achievements will derive from short- and long-term personal goals, and some of those goals will never be realized because of unavoidable circumstances including both inherent weaknesses and opportunities blocked by others; and the difference between the view of what a person believes the outcome should be and what actually results increases personal disappointment. Frustration is not necessarily due to any outside interference with valued goals, but a direct effect on anger, and has indirect effects on serious crime and aggression. Agnew and White (1992) have produced empirical evidence suggesting that general strain theory was positively able to relate delinquents and drug users, and that the strongest effect on the delinquents studied was the delinquency of their peers. They were interested in drug use because it did not appear to represent an attempt to direct anger or escape pain, but is used prim arily to manage the negative affect caused by strain. Up to this stage, strain theory had been related with types of strain as opposed to sources of strain while the stress of ones surroundings can be shown to involve with the expectations of just and fair results. These may be major events or minor hassles that build up and discourage over time. Frustration causes disappointment, bitterness, and anger all the emotions normally linked with strain in criminology. It is normal for persons to feel pain when they are refused fair compensations for their efforts, especially when measured against the endeavors and compensations given to others for similar results. Agnew (1992) deals with anger as the most decisive emotion as it is almost always aimed outwards and is generally linked to breakdowns in relationships. Study shows that the stress/crime relationship seems to hold regardless of guilt emotions, age, and capacity to deal with when events take place simultaneously or in close sequence. Robert Agnew In 1992, Agnew maintained that strain theory could be fundamental in describing crime and deviance, however that it required review so that it was not attached to social class or cultural standards; however, re-focused on self standards. He mapped out a general strain theory that is neither structural nor interpersonal; however, emotional and motivated on an individuals direct social status. He claimed that an individuals concrete or anticipated failure to realize positively valued objectives, actual or expected removal of positive values, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative motivation all results in strain. Strain appears from negative relationships with others. If persons are not dealt in the way that they anticipate or want to be dealt, they will lose their trust in the role others play for achieving goals. Anger and disappointment support unconstructive relationships. This will generally involve more one-sided action since there will be an innate wish to avoid unwanted rejections, supporting more general isolation. If specific rejections are general feelings that the situation is unjust or unfair, stronger and more negative feelings may inspire the person to engage in crime. This is especially true for younger people, and Agnew proposed that study concentrate on the overall , currency, duration, and grouping of such stressful events to find out whether a person deal with strain in a criminal or compliant way. He especially found temperament, intelligence, factors interpersonal skills, relationship with criminal peers and conservative social support important factors of self-efficacy. Robert Dubin Dubin (1959) judged deviance as a task of society, disputing the hypothesis that the deviant action resulting from circumstances of anomie is essentially damaging to society. For instance, a person in the ritualistic environment is still playing by the regulations and contributing to society. The only deviance lies in discarding one or more of its prescribed objectives. Dubin maintained that Mertons concentration on the interactions between societys stressed objectives, and institutionalized agreed methods was insufficient. Dubin thought an added difference should be made between cultural objectives, organizational methods and organizational standards since individuals identify standards individually, explaining them and operating them in a different way. The individual educational skills, principles, and behaviors may influence a person to internalize a norm one way. Another individual with different experiences may justifiably internalize in a different way. Both may be doing realistically in their own terms; however, the behavior is different. Dubin also expanded Mertons classification to fourteen, with particular focus in Innovation and Ritualism. Merton put forward that the new response to strain was linking the objective, although discarding the organizing agreed methods of realizing the objective. The connotation appeared to be that not only did the person discard the methods, he must vigorously innovate unlawful methods as a replacement which would not always be correct. Dubin also believed that a difference should be made between the real behavior of the individual and the principles that pushed the behavior. Rather than Innovation, Dubin put forward Behavioral Innovation and Value Innovation. Likewise, in Ritualism, he put forward Behavioral Ritualism and Value Ritualism (Dubin, 1959). Merton (1959) remarked on Dubins changes, claiming that although Dubin did make suitable contributions, they took the motivations off of deviancy. Operationalizing Strain for Juveniles Merton termed strain as an individuals response to a dysfunction between objectives and accessibility to the socially accepted methods for their achievement. Mertons original writings (1938; 1957) appear to spell out clearly that economic wealth is a principal goal in the meritocratic society and that education is the conservative ways for realizing wealth. At present, for instance, a college degree is usually considered as a minimum requirement for entry to a good job or professional job. Strain would be possible when a person is firmly dedicated to making much wealth nevertheless considers college as outside attainment. It is thought that structurally induced strain amongst juveniles would be considered correctly as the dysfunction between economic objectives and hopes for finishing college. On the contrary, the preferential operationalization of strain in delinquency researches has been the difference between educational aims and hopes. The argument for using this evaluation is that job expectations are less helpful as objectives for juveniles since these expectations are too far removed from their conscious concerns (Agnew, 1986, 1984; Elliott, Huizinga, Ageton, 1985). This normally used measure deviates considerably from Mertons theory. If strain is redefined completely in the field of education, the educational methods in Mertons original theory become both objectives and methods, and the central theoretical significance of economic objectives is lost. The basis for this version of strain for juveniles is challenging. Although juveniles may have trouble in thinking about future jobs, their financial aspirations may be strong and clear. For both hypothetical and rational motives, as a result, juvenile strain is a product of the dysfunction between economic objectives and educational prospects rather than as a dysfunction between educational aims and prospects. Conclusion In 1969, Hirschi proposed within a control outlook that high expectations to customary objectives performed as limitations on delinquency (1969) and that the calculation of a measure of strain would not enhance the descriptive competence of dedication alone. As against the strain position that high expectations in the presence of low expectations raise the chances of delinquency, Hirschi (1969) presumed that the (negative) relation between aspirations and delinquency (supportive of control theory) does not reverse when expectations are held constant. His assessment using educational expectations showed that while higher goals reduced the chance of delinquency in his sample, differences in educational expectations are not significant in the causation of delinquency for two reasons: few boys in the sample have expectations considerably beyond their expectations; and those boys whose expectations far exceed their expectations are at no greater risk to be delinquent than those boys whose expectations are the same (1969). More researches by Liska (1971) with several data sets strengthened Hirschis result. Similar to Hirschi, Liska computed juvenile strain as the dysfunction between educational expectations and reported results showing that Mertons stress proposition might be interpreted more simply by dedication or control theory. Therefore the most overwhelming criticism of strain theory relates to its noticeable failure in empirical research, mainly its failure in relation to control theory (Johnson, 1979; Kornhauser, 1978). In contrast, the majority of the studies supporting such results ignored the importance of economic success objectives in creating strain (Bernard, 1984). Hirschi recognized the possible value of income expectations in testing control and strain proposals (1969). His and Liskas denial of strain theory, though, depended on the assessment of objectives and methods as educational expectations Is EC Law Compatible with Parliamentary Sovereignty? Is EC Law Compatible with Parliamentary Sovereignty? Is the primacy of EC law over inconsistent UK statutes compatible with the doctrine of Parliamentary Sovereignty? The notion of Parliament as the supreme law-making body in the UK is a long-standing shibboleth of the British constitution[1]. Acts of Parliament have traditionally been deemed to be the highest form of law in the UK, and the courts were denied the authority to challenge them[2]. In 1972, however, the signing of the Treaty of Rome brought the UK within the scope of EC law[3]. The European Court of Justice has emphasised the primacy of EC law over the national law of its member states[4] and national courts are expected to recognise this. The British courts’ apparent capitulation[5] might suggest that Parliamentary sovereignty has now been usurped by the primacy of EC law. If true, this would be a major upheaval in our constitutional framework. However, on a closer analysis it seems that accession to the EC has had a less revolutionary effect on the British constitution than was initially feared. This paper will consider the relationship between these two seemingly irreconcilable doctrines and examine the question of whether they are capable of co-existence. Parliamentary Sovereignty Parliamentary sovereignty has a lengthy history in British constitutional law[6]. The definitive analysis was provided by Albert Dicey in the late 19th Century in his text Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution[7]. Essentially, the principle provides that Parliament is the highest law-making authority in the UK. It â€Å"has the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and further, that no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament.†[8] Dicey expands on this assertion to emphasise that Parliament was competent to pass laws on any subject[9]. The only thing that it could not do is bind its successors[10]. Furthermore, the courts lack the authority to challenge any statute that has been enacted using the correct procedure[11]. Primacy of EC Law Britain acceded to the European Communities in 1973, with the signing of the Treaty of Rome. EC law was given effect in Britain through the enactment of the European Communities Act 1972, which gave direct effect and application to EC law[12]. Article 10 of the Treaty of Rome, as amended, states that there is a duty on all member states to comply with Community law and not to impede its application and the European Court of Justice has vociferously emphasised its expectation that EC law will prevail where it conflicts with the domestic law of member states[13]. In Costa, for example, the ECJ states that â€Å"the precedence of Community law is confirmed by Art 189 (now 249) EC, whereby a regulation â€Å"shall be binding† and directly applicable in all Member States†[14]. In other words, EC law takes primacy over domestic law. The British courts have since demonstrated their willingness to comply with this instruction[15]. In Factortame No. 2[16], for example, Lord Bridge stated that â€Å"under the 1972 Act, it has always been clear that it was the duty of a UK court when delivering final judgment to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any directly enforceable Community law.†[17] Conflict between the doctrines The potential for conflict here is self-evident. The courts cannot serve two masters but, as long as these two competing doctrines co-exist, this effectively appears to be what they are being asked to do. On the one hand, Parliamentary sovereignty dictates that the courts have no right to question an Act of Parliament. On the other, EC law, which declares itself to be supreme, expects national courts to declare Acts of Parliament invalid to the extent that they are inconsistent with EC Law. On a practical level, it appears that the primacy of EC law has overwhelmed Parliamentary Sovereignty. The UK courts have grown more comfortable with applying EC law where it conflicts with UK statutes and EC law has become an accepted part of the British legal system. As Munro points out, however, it is important to remember that Parliamentary sovereignty is a legal doctrine[18]. It is not concerned with the political or practical effects of accession upon the authority of Parliament, but with whether, legally speaking, parliamentary sovereignty is preserved[19]. This is an important consideration. In cases that followed the enactment of the 1972 Act, Lord Denning attempted to reconcile the apparently conflicting norms[20]. He argued that, although EC law was treated by the courts as prevailing over conflicting domestic law, EC law was only offered this status on the basis of an Act of Parliament, the 1972 Act. As the 1972 Act has no greater status than any other parliamentary statute, it could be repealed by an express provision in a subsequent Act of Parliament. The legal concept of Parliamentary sovereignty is therefore preserved.[21] The 1972 is not presented as being in any way superior to a normal Act of Parliament[22]. Indeed, during the ministerial discussions that preceded the passing of the Act it was acknowledged that any attempt to do so could readily be overturned by a subsequent Parliament[23]. Of course, the doctrine of implied repeal cannot operate in respect of the 1972 Act since it is not considered to be overridden by subsequent contradictory enactments. As Munro points out, however, this is a characteristic shared by other legislation and does not necessarily threaten the sovereignty of Parliament[24]. Ward believes that parliamentary sovereignty is an archaic legal fiction that ignores political realities and serves no purpose in a modern setting shaped by the twin influences of globalisation and decentralisation of power[25]. He considers that we would be best served by abandoning the idea of Parliamentary sovereignty in favour of a â€Å"new constitutional order†[26]. However, even he acknowledges that, on the legal plane at least, the concept of Parliamentary sovereignty undoubtedly continues to exist alongside EC law[27]. Conclusion As Munro has argued, is important to distinguish the legal concept of Parliamentary sovereignty from a political or pragmatic interpretation of the term. While it may be that repeal of the 1972 Act and withdrawal from the EC would be impossible in real terms, Parliament retains the legal option to do this. Therefore, it is theoretically possible to reconcile the apparently conflicting doctrines within our constitutional framework. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnett, H.A. Constitutional and Administrative Law (Cavendish: London) 2004 Bradley, A. â€Å"The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?† in Jowell, J. and Oliver, D. The Changing Constitution (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 2004 Dicey, A.V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1959 Goldsworthy, J.D. The Sovereignty of Parliament: History and Philosophy (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 1999 Munro, C. Studies in Constitutional Law (Butterworths: London) 1999 Ward, I. A Critical Introduction to European Law (Butterworths: London) 1996 Ward, I. The Margins of European Law (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1996 Algemene Transport en Expeditie Onderneming Van Gend en Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] C.M.L.R. 105 Costa v. Ente Nazionale per lEnergia Elettrica (ENEL) [1968] C.M.L.R. 267 McCarthys Ltd v Smith (1979) 3 All ER 325 R v Secretary of State for Transport ex p. Factortame Ltd (No. 2) [1991] 1 A.C. 603 (HL) 1 Footnotes [1] See generally Goldsworthy, J.D. The Sovereignty of Parliament: History and Philosophy (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 1999 [2] Bradley, A. â€Å"The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?† in Jowell, J. and Oliver, D. The Changing Constitution (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 2004 (hereinafter â€Å"Bradley†) at 28 [3] Barnett, H.A. Constitutional and Administrative Law (Cavendish: London) 2004 (hereinafter â€Å"Barnett†) at 192 [4]Ibid [5] Bradley supra note 2 at 46 [6] See e.g. Munro, C. Studies in Constitutional Law (Butterworths: London) 1999 (hereinafter â€Å"Munro†) at 127 [7] Dicey, A.V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1959 (hereinafter â€Å"Dicey†) [8] Dicey supra note 7 at 39 [9] Ibid [10] Dicey supra note 7 at 44 [11] Dicey supra note 7 at 45 [12] Munro supra note 6 at 201 [13] See e.g. Algemene Transport en Expeditie Onderneming Van Gend en Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] C.M.L.R. 105 (hereinafter â€Å"Van Gend en Loos†) and Costa v. Ente Nazionale per lEnergia Elettrica (ENEL) [1968] C.M.L.R. 267 (hereinafter â€Å"Costa†) [14] Costa supra note 13 at 271 [15] Bradley supra note 2 at 46 [16] R v Secretary of State for Transport ex p. Factortame Ltd (No. 2) [1991] 1 A.C. 603 (HL) (hereinafter â€Å"Factortame†) [17] Factortame supra note 16 at 659 [18] Munro supra note 6 at 206 [19] Ibid [20] Ward, I. The Margins of European Law (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1996 (hereinafter â€Å"Margins†) at 76 [21] See e.g. McCarthys Ltd v Smith (1979) 3 All ER 325 [22] Munro supra note 6 at 204 [23] Bradley supra note 2 at 47 [24] Munro supra note 6 at 207 [25] Margins supra note 7 at Chapter 4 [26] Margins supra note 7 at 82 [27] Margins supra note 7 at 85

Dracula as the Persecuted Outsider in Bram Stokers Dracula Essay

Dracula as the Persecuted Outsider in Bram Stoker's Dracula Bram Stoker's Dracula is highly acclaimed and has received many different interpretations which deal with complex symbolisms and metaphors. These interpretations often require a great deal of knowledge in psychology, political science, anthropology, and other non-literary disciplines. These interpretations may be valid, as they are related to the disciplines on which their arguments are based, but the true power of the novel is due to a very simple theme that lies beneath the other, more convoluted interpretations. This theme is the universal concept of identity: us versus them. This criticism sets aside outside disciplines and focuses on the literary motif of identity. John Allen Stevenson gives an in-depth criticism of this work based mostly on anthropological ideas, but he states that Dracula is a representation of "fears that are more universal than a specific focus on the Victorian background would allow" (141). He brings up the concept of "universal" ideas but fails to pursue t hem on a universal scale. The truly universal theme involves the perception that Dracula is a monster. But Dracula is not a monster - he is simply a persecuted outsider. In this interpretation, it is important to seperate the actions of the characters from what those actions represent in relation to the theme of identity. Count Dracula is shown to be a vampire - a monster who engages in horrific, violent acts, but these acts of violence are merely Stoker's vehicle for presenting the difference between the Count and the other characters. His vampirish actions are not to be taken literally. "Dracula" is not a work of fantasy - it is primarily a realistic novel with one fantastic charact... ...safe once Dracula left, but the pursuit and slaying of him represents society's wish to remove him entirely from their minds. The killing of Dracula is not literal--he is only dead to society because they refuse to acknowledge his right to be different. Thus, Dracula is the victim of this story, not the ones society felt he victimized. Works Cited Arata, Stephen D. "The Occidental Tourist: Dracula and the Anxiety of Reverse Colonization." Victorian Studies 33.4 (Sum. 1990) : 621-45. Stevenson, John Allen. "A Vampire in the Mirror: The Sexuality of Dracula." PMLA 103 (1988) : 139-49. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. 1897. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1992. Wasson, Richard. "The Politics of Dracula." English Literature in Transition 9 (1966) : 24-27. Zanger, Jules. "A Sympathetic Vibration: Dracula and the Jews." English Literature in Transition 34 (1991) : 33-44.

Liberalisation in india Essay

Indian economy had experienced major policy changes in early 1990s. The new economic reform, popularly known as, Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG model) aimed at making the Indian economy as fastest growing economy and globally competitive. The series of reforms undertaken with respect to industrial sector, trade as well as financial sector aimed at making the economy more efficient. With the onset of reforms to liberalize the Indian economy in July of 1991, a new chapter has dawned for India and her billion plus population. This period of economic transition has had a tremendous impact on the overall economic development of almost all major sectors of the economy, and its effects over the last decade can hardly be overlooked. Besides, it also marks the advent of the real integration of the Indian economy into the global economy. This era of reforms has also ushered in a remarkable change in the Indian mindset, as it deviates from the traditional values held since Independence in 1947, such as self reliance and socialistic policies of economic development, which mainly due to the inward looking restrictive form of governance, resulted in the isolation, overall backwardness and inefficiency of the economy, amongst a host of other problems. This, despite the fact that India has always had the potential to be on the fast track to prosperity. Now that India is in the process of restructuring her economy, with aspirations of elevating herself from her present desolate position in the world, the need to speed up her economic development is even more imperative. And having witnessed the positive role that Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has played in the rapid economic growth of most of the Southeast Asian countries and most notably China, India has embarked on an ambitious plan to emulate the successes of her neighbors to the east and is trying to sell herself as a safe and profitable destination for FDI. Economic liberalization is a very broad term that usually refers to fewer government regulations and restrictions in the economy in exchange for greater participation of private entities; the doctrine is associated with neo-liberalism. The arguments for economic liberalization include greater efficiency and effectiveness that would translate to a â€Å"bigger pie† for  everybody. Since 1977, and specially after 1985-86, the Government has embarked upon a series of economic reforms leading towards liberalization and deregulation Subsequently, there has been a significant improvement in the growth rate of the country-from the long existing, low rate of income growth of 3.5 percent to an average growth rate of 5.5 per cent and above. Until July 1991 when the new Congress Government came to power. Since then the change in the policy packages have picked up momentum. There have been major changes since July 1991. The present Man Mohan Singh led Congress Government came into power in 2004. It has further extended the liberalization policy started in 1991. In its 2004-2005 and 2005-2006 budgets, the government has brought along with almost simultaneous changes in trade and finance announced outside the Budget.

Human Factor in Aviation Maintenance Essay

Abstract In the aviation industry, human error is consider as a major factor in most aviation accidents. Maintenance tasks that are performed incorrectly or are overlooked by maintenance crew would cause human errors. Examples of human errors in maintenance are installation of incorrect parts, essential checks not being performed and failed to install wanted parts. Among all aviation-related threats, errors made by maintenance crew are more difficult to detect and have the potential to remain dormant, affecting the safe operation of aircraft for longer duration. Although maintenance crews are responsible for their actions, organization problems also contributed to the threat of maintenance errors. Since it is not possible to eliminate all maintenance errors, introducing safety management systems (SMS) to aviation organizations can help identify hazards and control risk. Human factors issues in aviation maintenance Maintenance tasks may be carried out in confined spaces, at heights, under burning heat or in freezing cold and worst of all, it is also physically demanding. Good communication, coordination, clerical and focusing skills are needed to perform well in this environment. Fault analysis and rectification have to be solved quickly in order to minimize turnaround time. In addition, there would be latent emotional stress on maintenance personnel whose work has been involved in aviation accidents. However unlike aircrafts, humans do not come with a set of instructional manuals that helps us to understand their performance and capabilities. Each and every individual varies in many ways, hence one will never know how one maintenance task attributed to errors. Aviation industries become aware of many unpredictable accidents coming from human errors due to different contributing factors (Refer to Figure 1 for a graphical illustration on human error vs contributing factors) (Takahiro S, Terry L, William D, 2008)  and have taken steps to implement preventive or control measures. Factors contributing to human errors in maintenance Statistics have shown that 80% of errors are contributed due to human errors while the remaining percentage is due to mechanical or other failures. (Refer to Figure 2 for a graphical illustration on human error contribution percentile) (â€Å"Strategic program plan,† 2007) There is also a breakdown showing which type of maintenance activities having higher rate of human errors. (Refer to Table1, Frequency of Human error vs Type of maintenance activity) (Goldman, 2002) The Pear Model Four important human factors of the Pear Model (Refer to Figure 5 for graphical illustration) are: People who do the job, environment in which they work, actions they perform and resources  necessary to complete the job. People Human factors program focus on people who perform the work and attend to physical,  physiological, psychological and psychosocial factors. Organization must focus on individuals,  their physical capabilities, mental state, cognitive size and circumstances that may affect their  interaction with others. Factors like each person ‘s size, age, eyesight, strength, endurance,  experience, motivation and certification standards must be taken into consideration before each  person is tasked to work. Sufficient breaks and rest periods must be catered  to ensure each  person is not overload. Organization should encourage more teamwork and communications  between colleagues so that work accomplished will be safe and efficient. Offering educational  programs on health and fitness can help encourage good health and help reduce sick leave.  Hence, a good human factors program will consider all the limitations of humans and designs the  job accordingly. Environment Physical workplace in the hanger/shop and organization environment are environments  that are focused on human factors program. Conditions like temperature, lighting, noise control,  cleanliness, humidity and workplace design are considered physical environment. Cooperation,  mutual respect, culture of the organization, communication, leadership, shared goals and shared  values are important factors in an excellent organizational environment. Actions The standard human factors approach to identify skills, knowledge and  attitudes to  perform each task in a given job is called Job Task Analysis (JTA). It helps to identify what  instructions, tools and other resources needed to perform each task. By following exactly to the  JTA, each worker will be properly trained and each workplace will also has the necessary  equipment and other resources to perform the job. Resources Resources are viewed from a broad angle, such as anything that is needed to get the job  accomplished. Resources that are tangible are test equipment, tools, lifts, computers and  technical manuals, and so forth. Amount of time given, level of communication among people of  different levels, the number and qualifications of staff to complete a job are considered resources  that are less tangible. The most important element under resources is to identify the need for  additional resources. Accidents linked to maintenance Japan Airlines Flight 123 In August 1985, Japan Airlines flight 123 claimed the lives of 520 people when it crashed into a mountain. It was bound for a short flight from Tokyo to Osaka but at the altitude of 24,000ft, the aircraft suddenly lost control due to the failure of the rear pressure bulkhead and caused the whole cabin to suffer a sudden decompression. The impact of the escaping air caused the separation of the vertical stabilizer, rudder, hydraulic lines and four pressurized hydraulic systems. Investigations revealed that the aircraft had encountered a tail strike incident a few years ago. The repair work done on the aft bulkhead did not comply with the OEM recommended procedure as two doubler plates instead of a single plate were used to do the splice. (Refer to Figure 3 for an illustration of the repair) Eastern Airlines Flight 855 On May 5, 1983, Eastern Airlines flight 855 was on a flight from Miami, U.S. to Nassau, Bahamas. The plane carried a total of 172 people. While making a descend, the low oil pressure warning indicator on the center engine lighted up. The flight crew shut-off the center engine and decided to return back to Miami with the remaining two engines. On the way back to Miami, the aircraft’s low oil pressure warning indicators for the remaining two engines lighted up followed by flamed out within minutes. Luckily the flight crew managed to re-start the center engine again after the aircraft descended from 13,000ft to 4,000ft without any power. After the aircraft landed safely at Miami airport with one engine, no live loss or injuries were claimed. The investigation board concluded the cause of the incident was due to all three magnetic chip detectors on the engines had been installed without O-rings (Refer to Figure 4 for an illustration of the Chip) causing oil to leak from the engines during flight. This accident could be avoided if the engineers involved were discipline and carried out the maintenance tasks professionally. British Airway Flight 5390 On 10 June 1990, British Airlines flight 5390 was on a flight from Birmingham, England to Malaga, Spain. Suddenly at about 17,300ft, the left windscreen on the captain’s side of the cockpit blew out from the cockpit. The captain was sucked out of his seat with half of his body hanging out of the plane and the other half resting on the flight controls. No lives were lost on this flight, but the captain suffered frostbite, bruising, and  fractures to his right arm, left thumb and right wrist while flight attendant who aided the captain suffered a dislocated shoulder, frostbitten face and some frostbite damage to his left eye. Investigators found that the maintenance manager who worked on the windscreen had used incorrect bolts during a windscreen repair. Other issues highlighted were failed to check tolerance specification of the bolts, staffing shortage during night shift, parts storage and involvement of supervisors in hands-on maintenance work. Safety Management Systems A safety management system (SMS) is a systematic way to managing safety, policies, procedures, accountabilities, and including the necessary organisational structures. The objective of a Safety Management System is to provide a structured management approach to control safety risks in operations. Therefore in order to have an effective safety management, the organisation’s specific structures and processes related to safety of operations must be taken into account. safety management requires planning, organising, communicating and providing direction. The first step of the SMS progession begins with setting the organisational safety policy. It lay outs the strategy for achieving acceptable levels of safety within the organisation and defines the principles upon which the SMS is built and operated. In order to mitigate and limit risk during operations in the designed processes, safety planning and execution of safety management procedures are needed. Only with these controls in place, quality management techniques then can be utilised to ensure the intended objectives are met by deployment of safety assurance and if fail, evaluation processes are needed to provide continuous montioring of operations and for identifying areas of safety improvement. Furthermore, SMS also provides the organisational framework to set up and encourage the development of a positive safety culture. Finally, the implentation of SMS provides the organisation’s management a structured set of tools to meet their respomsibilites for safety defined by the regulator. Conclusion Aviation industries have realized that it is not possible to entirely eliminate maintenance errors but to take an approach to identify, correct and minimize the consequences of those errors. And with the implementation of SMS, hazards could be identify and risks could be control. In conclusion, all these human factor studies help aviation industries to make continuous improvement and implementation of solutions to reduce maintenance errors. References Strategic program plan. (2007, August 01). Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/StrategicProgramPlan.pdf Takahiro Suzuki, Terry L. Von Thaden, William D. Geibel. (2008). Influence of time pressure on aircraft maintenance errors. Informally published manuscript, University of Illinois, Retrieved from http://www.aviation.illinois.edu/avimain/papers/research/pub_pdfs/miscconf/AAvPA_suzuki_final.pdf Micheal E. Maddox. (2007). Human factors. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter1.pdf LindaWerfelman. (2008, April). Working to the limit. AeroSafety World, 3(4), 14-18. Retrieved from http://flightsafety.org/aerosafety-world-magazine/past-issues/aerosafety-world-april-2008 Colin G. Drury. (2007). Establishing a human factors/ergonomics program. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter2.pdf Hobbs, A. Australian Transport Safety Bureau, (2008). An overview of human factors in aviation maintenance (AR-2008-055). Retrieved from Australian Transport Safety Bureau website: http://www.atsb.gov.au/media/27818/ar2008055.pdf SKYbrary. (2013, September 14). Safety Management System. Retrieved from http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Safety_Management_System James T. Burnette. (2007). Workplace safety. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University: Daytona Beach, FL 32114. Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter3.pdf Micheal E. Maddox. (2007). Shiftwork and scheduling. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from Micheal E. Maddox. (2007). Facility design. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter5.pdf James Reason. (2007). Human error. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter14.pdf FAA. (2012). Human Factors. Retrieved from http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aircraft/media/AMT_Handbook_Addendum_Human_Factors.pdf Terrell N. Chandler. (2007). Training. Daytona Beach, FL 32114: Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. Retrieved from http:/ /libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/human-factors-in-aviation-maintenance/guide/chapter7.pdf Figure 1. Human error vs Contributing factors. (Takahiro S, Terry L, William D, 2008) Figure 2. Human error contribution percentile. (â€Å"Strategic program plan,† 2007) Table 1. Frequency of Human error vs Type of maintenance activity. (Goldman, 2002) Figure 3. Comparison of the correct and incorrect method of the doubler plate repair. (Hobbs, 2008) Figure 4. Location of O rings on magnetic chip detector. (Hobbs, 2008) Figure 5. The PEAR Model (FAA, 2012)